farmaecFARMAKOEKONOMIKA. Modern Pharmacoeconomics and PharmacoepidemiologyФАРМАКОЭКОНОМИКА. Современная фармакоэкономика и фармакоэпидемиология2070-49092070-4933IRBIS LLC10.17749/2070-4909/farmakoekonomika.2021.059farmaec-488Research ArticleREVIEW ARTICLESОБЗОРНЫЕ ПУБЛИКАЦИИHistory of controlled trials in medicine: real priorities are little-known. Report 1. Basic concepts, terms, and disciplines that use medical experiment: historical and philosophical sourcesИстория контролируемых испытаний в медицине: реальные приоритеты малоизвестны. Сообщение 1. Основные понятия, термины и дисциплины, использующие медицинский эксперимент: исторические и философские истокиhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-8700-7624КотеровА. Н.KoterovA. N.

Котеров Алексей Николаевич – д.б.н., заведующий лабораторией отдела радиационной эпидемиологии. РИНЦ SPIN-код: 1493-2530

ул. Живописная, д. 46, Москва 123182

Aleksey N. Koterov – Dr. Biol. Sc., Head of Laboratory, Department of Radiation Epidemiology. RSCI SPIN-code: 1493-2530

46 Zhivopisnaya Str., Moscow 123182

govorilga@inbox.ruhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-2255-4667ТихоноваО. А.TikhonovaO. A.

Тихонова Ольга Александровна – к.м.н., заведующая лабораторией мультидисциплинарных клинических исследований. РИНЦ SPIN-код: 5904-4013

ул. Живописная, д. 46, Москва 123182

Olga A. Tikhonova – MD, PhD, Head of Laboratory of Multidisciplinary Clinical Studies. RSCI SPIN-code: 5904-4013

46 Zhivopisnaya Str., Moscow 123182

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8486-8007УшенковаЛ. Н.UshenkovaL. N.

Ушенкова Лилия Николаевна – к.б.н., ведущий научный сотрудник отдела радиационной эпидемиологии. РИНЦ SPIN-код: 1289-9679

ул. Живописная, д. 46, Москва 123182

Liliya N. Ushenkova – PhD (Biol.), Leading Researcher, Department of Radiation Epidemiology. RSCI SPIN-code: 1289-9679

46 Zhivopisnaya Str., Moscow 123182

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2165-6984БирюковА. П.BiryukovA. P.

Бирюков Александр Петрович – д.м.н., профессор, заведующий отделом радиационной эпидемиологии. РИНЦ SPIN-код: 5690-5212

ул. Живописная, д. 46, Москва 123182

Aleksander P. Biryukov – Dr. Med. Sc., Professor, Head of Department of Radiation Epidemiology. RSCI SPIN-code: 5690-5212

46 Zhivopisnaya Str., Moscow 123182

Федеральное государственное бюджетное учреждение «Государственный научный центр Российской Федерации Федеральный медицинский биофизический центр им. А.И. Бурназяна» Федерального медико-биологического агентства РоссииРоссияRussian State Research Center – Burnasyan Federal Medical Biophysical Center, Federal Medical Biological AgencyRussian Federation2021270420211417298Copyright © Koterov A.N., Tikhonova O.A., Ushenkova L.N., Biryukov A.P., 20212021Котеров А.Н., Тихонова О.А., Ушенкова Л.Н., Бирюков А.П.Koterov A.N., Tikhonova O.A., Ushenkova L.N., Biryukov A.P.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://www.pharmacoeconomics.ru/jour/article/view/488

The three-report review was aimed at describing the historical development of clinical trials, controlled trials (CT) and randomized controlled trials (RCT), and the inclusion of these experimental approaches in disciplines related to both the health of individuals and populations (medicine and epidemiology). In Report 1, the authors consider the terminology issues applied to CT and RCT, the sources of the involved concepts, and relevant disciplines. It was shown that the terms ‘control’ and ‘trial’ appeared in experimental literature only at the end of the 19th century, ‘CT’ appeared in the first third or quarter of the 20th century, and the term ‘RCT’ appeared only in 2000s. It was found that approaches with CT and RCT were often included even in classical epidemiology, and this fact eliminates the specificity of differences between observational and experimental disciplines and blurred the difference between inductive and deductive methodologies. Scientific, philosophical, conceptual, and historical aspects were also considered for three areas that included CT and RCT: epidemiology, clinical epidemiology and evidence-based medicine (EBM). It was concluded that classical epidemiology, using predominantly inductive approaches, was not the scope of real medical experiments, in the first place, and, secondly, its prognosis was not aimed at the individual. At the same time, both clinical epidemiology and EBM, which mainly use deductive approaches, involve experiments, making it possible to make prognosis for a particular patient. The proposed summarizing scheme of the historical origins and philosophical foundations of disciplines aimed at finding and proving health effects using observational and experimental approaches reflects the problems considered and covers individual time milestones, which, as a rule, are not named in modern epidemiology textbooks and textbooks of other disciplines.

Обзор из трех сообщений посвящен истории развития клинических испытаний, контролируемых испытаний (англ. controlled trials, CT) и рандомизированных контролируемых испытаний (англ. randomized controlled trials, RCT), а также истории включения этих экспериментальных подходов в дисциплины, связанные со здоровьем как отдельных индивидуумов, так и популяций (медицина и эпидемиология). В сообщении 1 рассмотрены вопросы терминологии применительно к CT и RCT, истоки затрагиваемых понятий и актуальных по теме дисциплин. Показано, что термины control и trial начинают встречаться в экспериментальной литературе только в конце XIX в., CT – в 1-й трети или четверти XX в., а название RCT стало повсеместно внедряться только с 2000-х гг. Обнаружено, что подходы с CT и RCT нередко включают даже в классическую эпидемиологию, что устраняет специфичность отличий между обсервационными и экспериментальными дисциплинами и смазывает различие между индуктивными и дедуктивными методологиями. Рассмотрены также научно-философские, понятийные и исторические аспекты для трех областей, в которые включают CT и RCT: эпидемиология, клиническая эпидемиология и доказательная медицина (англ. evidence-based medicine, EBM). Сделан вывод, что классическая эпидемиология, использующая преимущественно индуктивные подходы, – это, во-первых, не сфера применения настоящих медицинских экспериментов, а во-вторых, цели ее прогноза не направлены на отдельного человека. В то же время и клиническая эпидемиология, и EBM, использующие в основном дедуктивные подходы, предусматривают эксперименты, позволяя делать прогнозы для конкретного пациента. Предложенная суммирующая схема исторических истоков и философских основ дисциплин, направленных на поиск и доказательство медико-биологических эффектов (англ. health effects) с помощью обсервационных и экспериментальных подходов, отражает рассмотренные проблемы и охватывает отдельные временные вехи, которые, как правило, не названы в современных пособиях по эпидемиологии и другим дисциплинам.

История экспериментальной медициныклинические испытанияконтролируемые испытаниярандомизированные контролируемые испытанияклассическая эпидемиологияклиническая эпидемиологиядоказательная медицинаиндукция и гипотетико-дедуктивный методHistory of experimental medicineclinical trialscontrolled trialsCTrandomized controlled trialsRCTclassical epidemiologyclinical epidemiologyevidence-based medicineEBMinduction and hypothetical-deductive methodВ рамках более широкой бюджетной темы НИР ФМБА России.Within the broader budget research theme of the FMBA of Russia.ReferencesHart J.T. Cochrane Lecture 1997. What evidence do we need for evidence based medicine? J Epidemiol Community Health. 1997; 51(6): 623–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.51.6.623.Hart J.T. Cochrane Lecture 1997. What evidence do we need for evidence based medicine? J Epidemiol Community Health. 1997; 51(6): 623–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.51.6.623.Hart J.T. The inverse care law. Lancet. 1971; 1 (7696): 405–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(71)92410-x.Hart J.T. The inverse care law. Lancet. 1971; 1 (7696): 405–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(71)92410-x.Марцевич С.Ю., Кутишенко Н.П. Рандомизированные клинические исследования и наблюдательные исследования: соотношение в иерархии доказательств эффективности лекарств. Рациональная фармакотерапия в кардиологии. 2016; 12 (5): 567–73. https://doi.org/10.20996/1819-6446-2016-12-5-567-573.Martsevich S.Yu., Kutishenko N.P. Randomised clinical trials and observational studies: the ratio in the hierarchy of evidence of the efficacy of drugs. Rational Pharmacotherapy in Cardiology. 2016; 12(5): 567–73 (in Russ.). https://doi.org/10.20996/1819-6446-2016-12-5-567-573.Bull J.P. A study of the history and principles of clinical therapeutic trials. M.D. thesis, University of Cambridge. 1951; 80 p. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/wp-data/uploads/2014/05/bull-19511.pdf (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Bull J.P. A study of the history and principles of clinical therapeutic trials. M.D. thesis, University of Cambridge. 1951; 80 p. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/wp-data/uploads/2014/05/bull-19511.pdf (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Bull J.P. The historical development of clinical therapeutic trials. J Chronic Dis. 1959; 10 (3): 218–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9681(59)90004-9.Bull J.P. The historical development of clinical therapeutic trials. J Chronic Dis. 1959; 10 (3): 218–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9681(59)90004-9.Авксентьева М.В. Контролируемый эксперимент в медицине. Медицинские технологии. Оценка и выбор. 2011; 3: 88–93.Avxentyeva M.V. A controlled trial in medicine. Medical Technologies. Assessment and Choice. 2011; 3: 88–93 (in Russ.).Nellhaus E.M., Davies T.H. Evolution of clinical trials throughout history. Marshall J Med. 2017; 3 (1): 41–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.18590/mjm.2017.vol3.iss1.9.Nellhaus E.M., Davies T.H. Evolution of clinical trials throughout history. Marshall J Med. 2017; 3 (1): 41–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.18590/mjm.2017.vol3.iss1.9.Торшин И.Ю., Громова О.А., Кобалава Ж.Д. О репрессиях ω-3 полиненасыщенных жирных кислот адептами доказательной медицины. ФАРМАКОЭКОНОМИКА. Современная фармакоэкономика и фармакоэпидемиология. 2019; 12 (2): 91–114. https://doi.org/10.17749/2070-4909.2019.12.2.91-114.Torshin I.Yu., Gromova O.A., Kobalava Z.D. Concerning the "repression" of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids by adepts of evidence-based medicine. FARMAKOEKONOMIKA. Modern Pharmacoeconomics and Pharmacoepidemiology. 2019; 12 (2): 91–114 (in Russ.). https://doi.org/10.17749/2070-4909.2019.12.2.91-114.Котеров А.Н. Громкое опровержение показало только правдивость опровергаемого: статья Торшина И.Ю., Громовой О.А., Кобалавы Ж.Д. «О репрессиях ω-3 полиненасыщенных жирных кислот адептами доказательной медицины» (2019). ФАРМАКОЭКОНОМИКА. Современная фармакоэкономика и фармакоэпидемиология. 2020; 13 (1): 63–4. https://doi.org/10.17749/2070-4909.2020.13.1.84-85.Koterov A.N. A clamorous refutation showed only the verity of the refuted: the article by I.Yu. Torshin, O.A. Gromova, and Zh.D. Kobalava “Repressions of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids by adherents of evidence-based medicine” (2019). FARMAKOEKONOMIKA. Modern Pharmacoeconomics and Pharmacoepidemiology. 2020; 13 (1): 63–4 (in Russ.). https://doi.org/10.17749/2070-4909.2020.13.1.84-85.Ahrens W., Pigeot I. (Eds.) Handbook of epidemiology. 2nd ed. New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London: Springer; 2014: 2498 p.Ahrens W., Pigeot I. (Eds.) Handbook of epidemiology. 2nd ed. New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London: Springer; 2014: 2498 p.Мелихов О.Г. Клинические исследования. 3-е изд. М.: Издательство Атмосфера; 2013: 200 с.Melikhov О.G. Clinical trials. 3rd ed. Мoscow: Atmosfera Publ.; 2013: 200 p. (in Russ.)Langton J. A discussion on the treatment of hernia in children. Brit Med J. 1896; 2 (73): 470–2.Langton J. A discussion on the treatment of hernia in children. Brit Med J. 1896; 2 (73): 470–2.Lilienfeld A.M. The Fielding H. Garrison lecture: Ceteris paribus: the evolution of the clinical trial. Bull Hist Med. 1982; 56 (1): 1–18.Lilienfeld A.M. The Fielding H. Garrison lecture: Ceteris paribus: the evolution of the clinical trial. Bull Hist Med. 1982; 56 (1): 1–18.Котеров А.Н. Критерии причинности в медико-биологических дисциплинах: история, сущность и радиационный аспект. Сообщение 2. Постулаты Генле–Коха и критерии причинности неинфекционных патологий до Хилла. Радиационная биология. Радиоэкология. 2019; 59 (4): 341–75. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0869803119040052.Koterov A.N. Causal criteria in medical and biological disciplines: history, essence and radiation aspect. Report 2. Henle–Koch postulates and criteria for causality of non-communicable pathologies before Hill. Radiation Biology. Radioecology. 2019; 59 (4): 341–75 (in Russ.). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0869803119040052.Feinstein A.R. Clinical epidemiology: the architecture of clinical research. Philadelphia etc.: W.B. Saunders Company; 1985: 812 p.Feinstein A.R. Clinical epidemiology: the architecture of clinical research. Philadelphia etc.: W.B. Saunders Company; 1985: 812 p.Edwards M.V. Control and the therapeutic trial, 1918–1948. MD thesis. University of London, 2004; 142 p. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/wp-data/uploads/2014/05/edwards-2004.pdf (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Edwards M.V. Control and the therapeutic trial, 1918–1948. MD thesis. University of London, 2004; 142 p. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/wp-data/uploads/2014/05/edwards-2004.pdf (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Edwards M. Control and the therapeutic trial: rhetoric and experimentation in Britain, 1918–1948. Wellcome Series in the History of Medicine, Clio Medica 82. Amsterdam, New York; 2006: 221 p.Edwards M. Control and the therapeutic trial: rhetoric and experimentation in Britain, 1918–1948. Wellcome Series in the History of Medicine, Clio Medica 82. Amsterdam, New York; 2006: 221 p.Williams K.J. British pharmaceutical industry, synthetic drug manufacture and the clinical testing of novel drugs 1895–1939. PhD thesis. University of Manchester. 2005; 484 p. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/wp-data/uploads/2014/05/williams-2005.pdf (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Williams K.J. British pharmaceutical industry, synthetic drug manufacture and the clinical testing of novel drugs 1895–1939. PhD thesis. University of Manchester. 2005; 484 p. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/wp-data/uploads/2014/05/williams-2005.pdf (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Marks H.M. The Kendrick–Eldering-(Frost) pertussis vaccine field trial. J R Soc Med. 2007; 100 (5): 242–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/014107680710000516.Marks H.M. The Kendrick–Eldering-(Frost) pertussis vaccine field trial. J R Soc Med. 2007; 100 (5): 242–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/014107680710000516.Trohler U. The introduction of numerical methods to assess the effects of medical interventions during the 18th century: a brief history. J R Soc Med. 2011; 104 (11): 465–74. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2011.11k025.Trohler U. The introduction of numerical methods to assess the effects of medical interventions during the 18th century: a brief history. J R Soc Med. 2011; 104 (11): 465–74. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2011.11k025.Day S. The development of clinical trials. In: Textbook of clinical trials. 2nd ed. Chichester; 2006: 3–11.Day S. The development of clinical trials. In: Textbook of clinical trials. 2nd ed. Chichester; 2006: 3–11.Gallin J.I., Ognibene F.P. (Eds.) Principles and practice of clinical research. 4th ed. 2018: 806 p.Gallin J.I., Ognibene F.P. (Eds.) Principles and practice of clinical research. 4th ed. 2018: 806 p.Петренко А. С миру по нитке: как соединились компоненты клинического исследования. URL: https://biomolecula.ru/articles/s-miru-po-nitke-kak-soedinilis-komponenty-klinicheskogoissledovaniia (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Petrenko А. Scraped and borrowed: how the components of a clinical trial came together. Available at: https://biomolecula.ru/ articles/s-miru-po-nitke-kak-soedinilis-komponenty-klinicheskogoissledovaniia (accessed 15.03.2021) (in Russ.). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)47051-0.Annotation. Clinical trials of new remedies. Lancet. 1931; 218 (5632): 304. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)47051-0.Sollmann T. Experimental therapeutics. J Am Med Assoc. 1912; 58(4): 242–4. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1912.04260010244004.Sollmann T. Experimental therapeutics. J Am Med Assoc. 1912; 58(4): 242–4. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1912.04260010244004.Gordis L. Epidemiology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, Elsevier Inc.; 2014: 392 p.Gordis L. Epidemiology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, Elsevier Inc.; 2014: 392 p.Sacks H., Chalmers T.C., Smith H. Jr. Randomized versus historical controls for clinical trials. Am J Med. 1982; 72 (2): 233–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(82)90815-4.Sacks H., Chalmers T.C., Smith H. Jr. Randomized versus historical controls for clinical trials. Am J Med. 1982; 72 (2): 233–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(82)90815-4.Koterov A.N., Ushenkova L.N., Zubenkova E.S. et al. Strength of association. Report 1. Graduations of relative risk. Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety. 2019; 64 (4): 5–17 (in Russ.). https://doi.org/10.12737/article_5d1adb25725023.14868717.Котеров А.Н., Ушенкова Л.Н., Зубенкова Э.С. и др. Сила связи. Сообщение 1. Градации относительного риска. Медицинская радиология и радиационная безопасность. 2019; 64 (4): 5–17. https://doi.org/10.12737/article_5d1adb25725023.14868717.Koterov A.N., Ushenkova L.N., Zubenkova E.S. et al. Strength of association. Report 2. Graduations of correlation size. Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety. 2019; 64 (6): 12–24 (in Russ.). https://doi.org/10.12737/1024-6177-2019-64-6-12-24.Котеров А.Н., Ушенкова Л.Н., Зубенкова Э.С. и др. Сила связи. Сообщение 2. Градации величины корреляции. Медицинская радиология и радиационная безопасность. 2019; 64 (6): 12–24. https://doi.org/10.12737/1024-6177-2019-64-6-12-24.Chalmers I., Dukan E., Podolsky S., Davey Smith G. The advent of fair treatment allocation schedules in clinical trials during the 19th and early 20th centuries. J. R. Soc. Med. 2012; 105 (5): 221–227. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2012.12k029.Chalmers I., Dukan E., Podolsky S., Davey Smith G. The advent of fair treatment allocation schedules in clinical trials during the 19th and early 20th centuries. J. R. Soc. Med. 2012; 105 (5): 221–227. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2012.12k029.Sengupta P. The laboratory rat: relating its age with human’s. Int J Prev Med. 2013; 4 (6): 624–30.Sengupta P. The laboratory rat: relating its age with human’s. Int J Prev Med. 2013; 4 (6): 624–30.Bernard C. An introduction to the study of experimental medicine. (1st ed. 1865). New York: Dover Publications. 1957; 272 p.Bernard C. An introduction to the study of experimental medicine. (1st ed. 1865). New York: Dover Publications. 1957; 272 p.Hankin E.H. A cure for tetanus and diphtheria. Nature. 1890; 43: 121–3. Reprint. Science. 1891; 43 (413): 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ns-17.413.1.Hankin E.H. A cure for tetanus and diphtheria. Nature. 1890; 43: 121–3. Reprint. Science. 1891; 43 (413): 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ns-17.413.1.Porter T.M. Control and the therapeutic trial: rhetoric and experimentation in Britain, 1918–1948: review of Edwards M. Control and the therapeutic trial: rhetoric and experimentation in Britain, 1918-1948. Med Hist. 2010; 54 (3): 421–2.Porter T.M. Control and the therapeutic trial: rhetoric and experimentation in Britain, 1918–1948: review of Edwards M. Control and the therapeutic trial: rhetoric and experimentation in Britain, 1918-1948. Med Hist. 2010; 54 (3): 421–2.Medical Research Council Therapeutic Trials Committee. The serum treatment of lobar pneumonia. Br Med J. 1934; 1 (3814): 241–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)43968-1.Medical Research Council Therapeutic Trials Committee. The serum treatment of lobar pneumonia. Br Med J. 1934; 1 (3814): 241–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)43968-1.Medical Research Council. Streptomycin treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: a Medical Research Council investigation. Brit Med J. 1948; 2 (4582): 769–82. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.4582.769.Medical Research Council. Streptomycin treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: a Medical Research Council investigation. Brit Med J. 1948; 2 (4582): 769–82. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.4582.769.Medical Research Council. Prevention of whooping-cough by vaccination; a Medical Research Council investigation. Br Med J. 1951; 1 (4721): 1463–71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4721.1463.Medical Research Council. Prevention of whooping-cough by vaccination; a Medical Research Council investigation. Br Med J. 1951; 1 (4721): 1463–71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4721.1463.Medical Research Council. Rheumatic Fever Working Party of the Medical Research Council of Great Britain, Subcommittee of Principal Investigators of the American Council on Rheumatic Fever and Congenital Heart Disease, American Heart Association. Treatment of acute rheumatic fever in children a co-operative clinical trial of A.C.T.H., cortisone, and aspirin. Br Med J. 1955; 1 (4913): 555–74. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.11.3.343.Medical Research Council. Rheumatic Fever Working Party of the Medical Research Council of Great Britain, Subcommittee of Principal Investigators of the American Council on Rheumatic Fever and Congenital Heart Disease, American Heart Association. Treatment of acute rheumatic fever in children a co-operative clinical trial of A.C.T.H., cortisone, and aspirin. Br Med J. 1955; 1 (4913): 555–74. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.11.3.343.Donaldson I. George Starkey’s 1658 challenge to Galenists to compare their treatment results with his. J R Soc Med. 2017; 110 (7): 292–4. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076817719816.Donaldson I. George Starkey’s 1658 challenge to Galenists to compare their treatment results with his. J R Soc Med. 2017; 110 (7): 292–4. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076817719816.Donaldson I.M. Mesmer’s 1780 proposal for a controlled trial to test his method of treatment using “animal magnetism”. J R Soc Med. 2005; 98 (12): 572–5.Donaldson I.M. Mesmer’s 1780 proposal for a controlled trial to test his method of treatment using “animal magnetism”. J R Soc Med. 2005; 98 (12): 572–5.Morabia A. P.C.A. Louis and the birth of clinical epidemiology. J Clin Epidemiol. 1996; 49 (12): 1327–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0895-4356(96)00294-6.Morabia A. P.C.A. Louis and the birth of clinical epidemiology. J Clin Epidemiol. 1996; 49 (12): 1327–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0895-4356(96)00294-6.Neyman J. (1923/1990) Sur les applications de la theorie des probabilites aux experiences agricoles [On the application of probability theory to agricultural experiments: essay on principles (Section 9)]. Stat Sci. 1990; 5 (4): 465–72. https://doi.org/10.1214/ss/1177012031.Neyman J. (1923/1990) Sur les applications de la theorie des probabilites aux experiences agricoles [On the application of probability theory to agricultural experiments: essay on principles (Section 9)]. Stat Sci. 1990; 5 (4): 465–72. https://doi.org/10.1214/ss/1177012031.Fisher R.A. The arrangement of field experiments. Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture. 1926; 33: 503–513. https://doi.org/10.23637/rothamsted.8v61q.Fisher R.A. The arrangement of field experiments. Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture. 1926; 33: 503–513. https://doi.org/10.23637/rothamsted.8v61q.Kaptchuk T.J. Early use of blind assessment in a homeopathic scientific experiment. JLL Bulletin. 2004. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/articles/early-use-of-blind-assessment-in-ahomeopathic-scientific-experiment/ (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Kaptchuk T.J. Early use of blind assessment in a homeopathic scientific experiment. JLL Bulletin. 2004. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/articles/early-use-of-blind-assessment-in-ahomeopathic-scientific-experiment/ (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Peirce C.S., Jastrow J. On small differences of sensation. National Academy of Sciences Memoirs. 1884; 43 (1): 75–83.Peirce C.S., Jastrow J. On small differences of sensation. National Academy of Sciences Memoirs. 1884; 43 (1): 75–83.Colebrook D. Report of the work at the North Islington Infant Welfare Centre Light Department. 3 March, FD1/5052. National Archive in Kew, London. 1925.Colebrook D. Report of the work at the North Islington Infant Welfare Centre Light Department. 3 March, FD1/5052. National Archive in Kew, London. 1925.Edwards M. Dora Colebrook and the evaluation of light therapy. J R Soc Med. 2011; 104 (2): 84–6. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2010.10k067.Edwards M. Dora Colebrook and the evaluation of light therapy. J R Soc Med. 2011; 104 (2): 84–6. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2010.10k067.Hill A.B. The clinical trial. Br Med Bull. 1951; 7 (4): 278–82. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a073919.Hill A.B. The clinical trial. Br Med Bull. 1951; 7 (4): 278–82. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a073919.Altman D.G., Bland J.M. Statistics notes. Treatment allocation in controlled trials: why randomise? Br Med J. 1999; 318 (7192): 1209. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.318.7192.1209.Altman D.G., Bland J.M. Statistics notes. Treatment allocation in controlled trials: why randomise? Br Med J. 1999; 318 (7192): 1209. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.318.7192.1209.Chalmers I. Why the 1948 MRC trial of streptomycin used treatment allocation based on random numbers. J R Soc Med. 2011; 104 (9): 383–6. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2011.11k023.Chalmers I. Why the 1948 MRC trial of streptomycin used treatment allocation based on random numbers. J R Soc Med. 2011; 104 (9): 383–6. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2011.11k023.Armitage P. Randomisation and alternation: a note on Diehl et al. JLL Bulletin. 2002. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/articles/randomisation-and-alternation-a-note-on-diehl-et-al/ (accessed March 15, 2021).Armitage P. Randomisation and alternation: a note on Diehl et al. JLL Bulletin. 2002. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/articles/randomisation-and-alternation-a-note-on-diehl-et-al/ (accessed March 15, 2021).Waller L.A. A note on Harold S. Diehl, randomization, and clinical trials. Control Clin Trials. 1997; 18 (2): 180–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0197-2456(96)00140-7.Waller L.A. A note on Harold S. Diehl, randomization, and clinical trials. Control Clin Trials. 1997; 18 (2): 180–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0197-2456(96)00140-7.Diehl H.S., Baker A.B., Cowan D.W. Cold vaccines; an evaluation based on a controlled study. J Amer Med Assoc. 1938; 111 (13): 1168–73.Diehl H.S., Baker A.B., Cowan D.W. Cold vaccines; an evaluation based on a controlled study. J Amer Med Assoc. 1938; 111 (13): 1168–73.Ellison J.B. Intensive vitamin therapy in measles. Brit Med J. 1932; 2 (3745): 708–11. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.3745.708.Ellison J.B. Intensive vitamin therapy in measles. Brit Med J. 1932; 2 (3745): 708–11. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.3745.708.Hill A.B. Principles of medical statistics. I. The aim of the statistical method; and General summary and conclusions. Lancet. 1937; 1: 41-3, 883–5.Hill A.B. Principles of medical statistics. I. The aim of the statistical method; and General summary and conclusions. Lancet. 1937; 1: 41-3, 883–5.Ferguson R.G., Simes A.B. BCG vaccination of indian Infants in Saskatchewan. Tubercle. 1949; 30 (1): 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0041-3879(49)80055-9.Ferguson R.G., Simes A.B. BCG vaccination of indian Infants in Saskatchewan. Tubercle. 1949; 30 (1): 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0041-3879(49)80055-9.Houston C.S. Ferguson’s BCG research – Canada’s first randomized clinical trial? Clin Invest Med. 1993; 16 (1): 89–91.Houston C.S. Ferguson’s BCG research – Canada’s first randomized clinical trial? Clin Invest Med. 1993; 16 (1): 89–91.Farewell V., Johnson T. Major Greenwood and clinical trials. J R Soc Med. 2017; 110 (11): 452–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076817736028.Farewell V., Johnson T. Major Greenwood and clinical trials. J R Soc Med. 2017; 110 (11): 452–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076817736028.Hrobjartsson B., Gotzsche P.C., Gluud C. The controlled clinical trial turns 100 years: Fibiger’s trial of serum treatment of diphtheria. Brit Med J. 1998; 317 (7167): 1243–5. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7167.1243.Hrobjartsson B., Gotzsche P.C., Gluud C. The controlled clinical trial turns 100 years: Fibiger’s trial of serum treatment of diphtheria. Brit Med J. 1998; 317 (7167): 1243–5. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7167.1243.Farewell V., Johnson A. The origins of Austin Bradford Hill’s classic textbook of medical statistics. J R Soc Med. 2012; 105 (11): 483–9. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2012.12k075-jll.Farewell V., Johnson A. The origins of Austin Bradford Hill’s classic textbook of medical statistics. J R Soc Med. 2012; 105 (11): 483–9. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2012.12k075-jll.Bradford Hill A. Principles oi medical statistics. 6th ed. London: Lancet; 1955.Хилл Бредфорд А. Основы медицинской статистики. 6-е изд. М.: Медгиз; 1958: 306 с.Green F.H. The clinical evaluation of remedies. Lancet. 1954; 267 (6848): 1085–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(54)90649-2.Green F.H. The clinical evaluation of remedies. Lancet. 1954; 267 (6848): 1085–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(54)90649-2.Lock S. The randomised controlled trial — a British invention. In: Lawrence G. (Ed.) Technologies of modern medicine. London: Science Museum; 1994: 81–7.Lock S. The randomised controlled trial — a British invention. In: Lawrence G. (Ed.) Technologies of modern medicine. London: Science Museum; 1994: 81–7.Doll R. Controlled trials: the 1948 watershed. Br Med J. 1998; 317 (7167): 1217–20. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7167.1217.Doll R. Controlled trials: the 1948 watershed. Br Med J. 1998; 317 (7167): 1217–20. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7167.1217.Jadad A.R., Enkin M.W. Randomized controlled trials. Questions, answers, and musings. 2nd ed. Malden, Oxford, Carlton: BMJ Books; 2007: 136 p.Jadad A.R., Enkin M.W. Randomized controlled trials. Questions, answers, and musings. 2nd ed. Malden, Oxford, Carlton: BMJ Books; 2007: 136 p.Aschengrau A., Seage G.R. III. Epidemiology in public health. 4th ed. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC; 2020: 528 p.Aschengrau A., Seage G.R. III. Epidemiology in public health. 4th ed. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC; 2020: 528 p.Chalmers I. Why transition from alternation to randomisation in clinical trials? Br Med J. 1999; 319: (7221): 1372. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.319.7221.1372.Chalmers I. Why transition from alternation to randomisation in clinical trials? Br Med J. 1999; 319: (7221): 1372. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.319.7221.1372.Vandenbroucke J.P. When are observational studies as credible as randomised trials? Lancet. 2004; 363 (9422): 1728–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16261-2.Vandenbroucke J.P. When are observational studies as credible as randomised trials? Lancet. 2004; 363 (9422): 1728–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16261-2.Yoshioka A. Use of randomisation in the Medical Research Council’s clinical trial of streptomycin in pulmonary tuberculosis in the 1940s. Br Med J. 1998; 317 (7167): 1220–3. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7167.1220.Yoshioka A. Use of randomisation in the Medical Research Council’s clinical trial of streptomycin in pulmonary tuberculosis in the 1940s. Br Med J. 1998; 317 (7167): 1220–3. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7167.1220.Chalmers I. UK Medical Research Council and multicentre clinical trials: from a damning report to international recognition. J R Soc Med. 2013; 106 (12): 498–509. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076813510452.Chalmers I. UK Medical Research Council and multicentre clinical trials: from a damning report to international recognition. J R Soc Med. 2013; 106 (12): 498–509. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076813510452.Armitage P. Bradford Hill and the randomized controlled trial. Pharm Med. 1992; 6: 23–37.Armitage P. Bradford Hill and the randomized controlled trial. Pharm Med. 1992; 6: 23–37.Hill A.B. Suspended judgment. Memories of the British streptomycin trial in tuberculosis: the first randomized clinical trial. Control Clin Trials. 1990; 11 (2): 77–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-2456(90)90001-i.Hill A.B. Suspended judgment. Memories of the British streptomycin trial in tuberculosis: the first randomized clinical trial. Control Clin Trials. 1990; 11 (2): 77–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-2456(90)90001-i.Hill B.A. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc R Soc Med. 1965; 58 (5): 295–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076814562718.Hill B.A. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc R Soc Med. 1965; 58 (5): 295–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076814562718.Bell J.A. Pertussis prophylaxis with two doses of alum-precipitated vaccine. Public Health Rep. 1941; 56 (31): 1535–46. https://doi.org/10.2307/4583816.Bell J.A. Pertussis prophylaxis with two doses of alum-precipitated vaccine. Public Health Rep. 1941; 56 (31): 1535–46. https://doi.org/10.2307/4583816.Bhatt A. Evolution of clinical research: a history before and beyond James Lind. Perspect Clin Res. 2010; 1 (1): 6–10.Bhatt A. Evolution of clinical research: a history before and beyond James Lind. Perspect Clin Res. 2010; 1 (1): 6–10.Wiedermann W., von Eye A. (Eds.) Statistics and causality: methods for applied empirical research. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2016: 438 p.Wiedermann W., von Eye A. (Eds.) Statistics and causality: methods for applied empirical research. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2016: 438 p.Meldrum M.L. A brief history of the randomized controlled trial. From oranges and lemons to the gold standard. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2000; 14 (4): 745–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/s08898588(05)70309-9.Meldrum M.L. A brief history of the randomized controlled trial. From oranges and lemons to the gold standard. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2000; 14 (4): 745–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/s08898588(05)70309-9.Armitage P. The role of randomization in clinical trials. Stat Med. 1982; 1 (4): 345–52. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.4780010412.Armitage P. The role of randomization in clinical trials. Stat Med. 1982; 1 (4): 345–52. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.4780010412.Cox-Maximov D. The making of the clinical trial in Britain, 1910-1945: expertise, the state and the public. PhD thesis. University of Cambridge; 1997: 395 p. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/wpdata/uploads/2014/05/cox-maksimov-1997.pdf (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Cox-Maximov D. The making of the clinical trial in Britain, 1910-1945: expertise, the state and the public. PhD thesis. University of Cambridge; 1997: 395 p. URL: https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/wpdata/uploads/2014/05/cox-maksimov-1997.pdf (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Kulkarni K., Harrison J., Baguneid M., B. Prendergast B. (Eds.) Oxford handbook of key clinical evidence. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016: 949 p.Kulkarni K., Harrison J., Baguneid M., B. Prendergast B. (Eds.) Oxford handbook of key clinical evidence. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016: 949 p.Mayer D. Essential evidence-based medicine. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press; 2010: 442 p. URL: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/56834431/dan-mayer-essential-evidence-basedmedicine (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Mayer D. Essential evidence-based medicine. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press; 2010: 442 p. URL: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/56834431/dan-mayer-essential-evidence-basedmedicine (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Morabia A. The controversial controversy of a passionate controversialist. J Clin Epidemiol. 2002; 55 (12): 1207–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0895-4356(02)00526-7.Morabia A. The controversial controversy of a passionate controversialist. J Clin Epidemiol. 2002; 55 (12): 1207–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0895-4356(02)00526-7.Piantadosi S. Clinical trials: a methodologic perspective. 2nd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2005: 687 p.Piantadosi S. Clinical trials: a methodologic perspective. 2nd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2005: 687 p.Sackett D.L., Haynes R.B., Gibson E.S., et al. Randomised clinical trial of strategies for improving medication compliance in primary hypertension. Lancet. 1975; 1 (7918): 1205–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(75)92192-3.Sackett D.L., Haynes R.B., Gibson E.S., et al. Randomised clinical trial of strategies for improving medication compliance in primary hypertension. Lancet. 1975; 1 (7918): 1205–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(75)92192-3.Hill A.B. Reflections on the controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 1966; 25 (2): 107–13. https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.25.2.107.Hill A.B. Reflections on the controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 1966; 25 (2): 107–13. https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.25.2.107.Guyatt G., Sackett D., Adachi J., et al. A clinician’s guide for conducting randomized trials in individual patients. CMAJ. 1988; 139 (6): 497–503.Guyatt G., Sackett D., Adachi J., et al. A clinician’s guide for conducting randomized trials in individual patients. CMAJ. 1988; 139 (6): 497–503.Shavelson R.J., Towne L. (Eds.) National Research Council. Committee on Scientific Principles for Educational Research. Scientific research in education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2002: 204 p. https://doi.org/10.17226/10236.Shavelson R.J., Towne L. (Eds.) National Research Council. Committee on Scientific Principles for Educational Research. Scientific research in education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2002: 204 p. https://doi.org/10.17226/10236.Brass C.T., Nunez-Neto B., Williams E.D. Congress and program evaluation: an overview of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and related issues. CRS Report for Congress. Order Code RL33301. Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress; 2006. URL: https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL33301.html (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Brass C.T., Nunez-Neto B., Williams E.D. Congress and program evaluation: an overview of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and related issues. CRS Report for Congress. Order Code RL33301. Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress; 2006. URL: https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL33301.html (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Bloom H.S. The core analytics of randomized experiments for social research. In: Alasuutari P., Bickman L., Brannen J. (Eds.) The SAGE handbook of social research methods. London, England: SAGE; 2008: 115–33. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446212165.Bloom H.S. The core analytics of randomized experiments for social research. In: Alasuutari P., Bickman L., Brannen J. (Eds.) The SAGE handbook of social research methods. London, England: SAGE; 2008: 115–33. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446212165.Stephenson J, Imrie J. Why do we need randomised controlled trials to assess behavioural interventions? Brit. Med. J. 1998. 316; (7131): 611–613. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.316.7131.611.Stephenson J, Imrie J. Why do we need randomised controlled trials to assess behavioural interventions? Brit. Med. J. 1998. 316; (7131): 611–613. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.316.7131.611.Ahmed I., Soares K.V., Seifas R., Adams C.E. Randomized controlled trials in Archives of General Psychiatry (1959–1995): a prevalence study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998; 55 (8): 754–5.Ahmed I., Soares K.V., Seifas R., Adams C.E. Randomized controlled trials in Archives of General Psychiatry (1959–1995): a prevalence study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998; 55 (8): 754–5.O’Cathain A. A practical guide qualitative research with randomized controlled trials. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2018: 224 p.O’Cathain A. A practical guide qualitative research with randomized controlled trials. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2018: 224 p.Jones D.S., Podolsky S.H. The art of medicine. The history and fate of the gold standard. Lancet. 2015; 385 (9977): 1502–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60742-5.Jones D.S., Podolsky S.H. The art of medicine. The history and fate of the gold standard. Lancet. 2015; 385 (9977): 1502–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60742-5.Feinstein A.R., Horwitz R.I. Double standards, scientific methods, and epidemiologic research. N Engl J Med. 1982; 307 (260): 1611–7. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198212233072604.Feinstein A.R., Horwitz R.I. Double standards, scientific methods, and epidemiologic research. N Engl J Med. 1982; 307 (260): 1611–7. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198212233072604.Worrall J. Why randomize? Evidence and ethics in clinical trials. In: Gonzalez W.J., Alcolea J. (Eds.) Contemporary perspectives in philosophy and methodology of science. Netbiblo; 2006: 65–82.Worrall J. Why randomize? Evidence and ethics in clinical trials. In: Gonzalez W.J., Alcolea J. (Eds.) Contemporary perspectives in philosophy and methodology of science. Netbiblo; 2006: 65–82.Worrall J. Evidence: philosophy of science meets medicine. J Eval Clin Pract. 2010; 16 (2): 356–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2010.01400.x.Worrall J. Evidence: philosophy of science meets medicine. J Eval Clin Pract. 2010; 16 (2): 356–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2010.01400.x.Cartwright N. Are RCTs the gold standard? Biosocieties. 2007; 2(1): 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1745855207005029.Cartwright N. Are RCTs the gold standard? Biosocieties. 2007; 2(1): 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1745855207005029.Kaptchuk T.J. The double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial: gold standard or golden calf? J Clin Epidemiol. 2001; 54 (6): 541–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0895-4356(00)00347-4.Kaptchuk T.J. The double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial: gold standard or golden calf? J Clin Epidemiol. 2001; 54 (6): 541–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0895-4356(00)00347-4.Bondemark L., Ruf S. Randomized controlled trial: the gold standard or an unobtainable fallacy? Eur J Orthod. 2015; 37 (5): 57–61. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejo/cjv046.Bondemark L., Ruf S. Randomized controlled trial: the gold standard or an unobtainable fallacy? Eur J Orthod. 2015; 37 (5): 57–61. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejo/cjv046.Bickman L., Reich S.M. Randomized controlled trials: a gold standard or gold plated? In: Christie C.A., Donaldson S.I., Mark M.M. (Eds.) Credible and actionable evidence: the foundation for rigorous and influential evaluations. 2nd ed. Los Angeles: SAGE Publ.; 2015: 83–113. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483385839.n7.Bickman L., Reich S.M. Randomized controlled trials: a gold standard or gold plated? In: Christie C.A., Donaldson S.I., Mark M.M. (Eds.) Credible and actionable evidence: the foundation for rigorous and influential evaluations. 2nd ed. Los Angeles: SAGE Publ.; 2015: 83–113. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483385839.n7.Grossman J., Mackenzie F. The randomized controlled trial: gold standard, or merely standard? Perspect Biol Med. 2005; 48 (4): 516–34. https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2005.0092.Grossman J., Mackenzie F. The randomized controlled trial: gold standard, or merely standard? Perspect Biol Med. 2005; 48 (4): 516–34. https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2005.0092.Bothwell L.E., Greene J.A., Podolsky S.H., Jones D.S. Assessing the gold standard — lessons from the history of RCTs. N Engl J Med. 2016; 374 (22): 2175–81. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMms1604593.Bothwell L.E., Greene J.A., Podolsky S.H., Jones D.S. Assessing the gold standard — lessons from the history of RCTs. N Engl J Med. 2016; 374 (22): 2175–81. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMms1604593.Szklo M., Nieto F.J. Epidemiology. Beyond the Basics. 4th ed. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2019: 577 p.Szklo M., Nieto F.J. Epidemiology. Beyond the Basics. 4th ed. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2019: 577 p.Rebrova О.Yu. Evidence-based medicine. Concept and practice. Osteoporosis and Bone Diseases. 2001; 3: 6 (in Russ.).Реброва О.Ю. Доказательная медицина (ДМ). Концепция и практика. Остеопороз и остеопатии. 2001; 3: 6.Howick J. The philosophy of evidence-based medicine. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell; 2011: 248 p.Howick J. The philosophy of evidence-based medicine. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell; 2011: 248 p.Opren. Parliament.uk. Hansard 1803–2005. HC. Deb 20 July 1987, vol. 120. cc. 183–8. Available at: https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1987/jul/20/opren (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Opren. Parliament.uk. Hansard 1803–2005. HC. Deb 20 July 1987, vol. 120. cc. 183–8. Available at: https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1987/jul/20/opren (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Last J.M. (Ed.) A dictionary of epidemiology. Oxford University Press; 2001.Ласт Дж.М. (ред.) Эпидемиологический словарь. 4-е изд. М.: ОИЗ; 2009: 316 с.Lilienfeld D.E. Definitions of epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1978; 107 (2): 87–90. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112521.Lilienfeld D.E. Definitions of epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1978; 107 (2): 87–90. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112521.Susser M. Epidemiology in the United States after World War II: the evolution of technique. Epidemiol Rev. 1985; 7: 147–77. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036280.Susser M. Epidemiology in the United States after World War II: the evolution of technique. Epidemiol Rev. 1985; 7: 147–77. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036280.Porta M. (Ed.) A dictionary of epidemiology. 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2014: 344 p.Porta M. (Ed.) A dictionary of epidemiology. 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2014: 344 p.Katz D.L., Elmore J.G., Wild D.M.G., Lucan S.C. Jekel’s epidemiology, biostatistics, preventive medicine, and public health. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Inc.; 2014: 453 p.Katz D.L., Elmore J.G., Wild D.M.G., Lucan S.C. Jekel’s epidemiology, biostatistics, preventive medicine, and public health. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Inc.; 2014: 453 p.Ahlbom A., Norell S. Introduction to modern epidemiology. 1st. ed. Chestnut Hill, MA: Epidemiology Resources; 1984.Альбом А., Норелл С. Введение в современную эпидемиологию. Таллин; 1996: 122 с.Bruce N., Pope D., Stanistreet D. Quantitative methods for health research. A practical interactive guide to epidemiology and statistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons; 2019: 545 p.Bruce N., Pope D., Stanistreet D. Quantitative methods for health research. A practical interactive guide to epidemiology and statistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons; 2019: 545 p.MacMahon B., Pugh T.F., Ipsen J. Epidemiologic methods. Boston: Little, Brown: 1960: 302 p.MacMahon B., Pugh T.F., Ipsen J. Epidemiologic methods. Boston: Little, Brown: 1960: 302 p.MacMahon B., Pugh T.F. Epidemiology: principles and methods. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.; 1970: 376 p.MacMahon B., Pugh T.F. Epidemiology: principles and methods. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.; 1970: 376 p.Taylor I. Epidemiology 1866–1966. Public Health. 1967; 82; (1): 31–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(67)80063-5.Taylor I. Epidemiology 1866–1966. Public Health. 1967; 82; (1): 31–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(67)80063-5.Morris J.N. Uses of epidemiology. Br Med J. 1955; 2 (4936): 395–401. Reprint: Int J Epidemiol. 2007; 36 (6): 1165–72. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dym227.Morris J.N. Uses of epidemiology. Br Med J. 1955; 2 (4936): 395–401. Reprint: Int J Epidemiol. 2007; 36 (6): 1165–72. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dym227.Grimes D.A. Clinical research in ancient Babylon: methodologic insights from the book of Daniel. Obstet Gynecol. 1995; 86 (6): 1031–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/0029-7844(95)00276-W.Grimes D.A. Clinical research in ancient Babylon: methodologic insights from the book of Daniel. Obstet Gynecol. 1995; 86 (6): 1031–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/0029-7844(95)00276-W.Sankaranarayanan К. Estimation of genetic risks of exposure to ionizing radiation: status in the year 2000. Radiation Biology. Radioecology. 2000; 40 (5): 621–6.Sankaranarayanan К. Estimation of genetic risks of exposure to ionizing radiation: status in the year 2000. Радиационная биология. Радиоэкология. 2000; 40 (5): 621–6.UNSCEAR 2001. Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes. Annex “Hereditary effects of radiation”. United Nations. New York. 2001. Available at: https://www.unscear.org/unscear/publications.html (дата обращения 15.03.2021).UNSCEAR 2001. Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes. Annex “Hereditary effects of radiation”. United Nations. New York. 2001. Available at: https://www.unscear.org/unscear/publications.html (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Schneider D., Lilienfeld D.E. (Eds.) Lilienfeld’s Foundations of Epidemiology. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2015: 333 p.Schneider D., Lilienfeld D.E. (Eds.) Lilienfeld’s Foundations of Epidemiology. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2015: 333 p.Vlasov V.V. Epidemiology: a textbook. 2nd ed. Мoscow: GEOTARMedia; 2006: 464 p. (in Russ.)Власов В.В. Эпидемиология: учебное пособие. 2-е изд. М.: ГЭОТАР-Медиа; 2006: 464 с.Okasha S. Experiment, observation, and the confirmation of laws. Analysis. 2011; 71 (2): 222–32. https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/anr014.Okasha S. Experiment, observation, and the confirmation of laws. Analysis. 2011; 71 (2): 222–32. https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/anr014.Hofmann B., Holm S., Iversen J.G. Philosophy of Science. In: Laake P., Benestad H.B., Olsen B.R. (Eds.) Research methodology in the medical and biological sciences. London etc.: Academic Press, Elsevier; 2007: 1–32.Hofmann B., Holm S., Iversen J.G. Philosophy of Science. In: Laake P., Benestad H.B., Olsen B.R. (Eds.) Research methodology in the medical and biological sciences. London etc.: Academic Press, Elsevier; 2007: 1–32.Susser M. The logic of Sir Karl Popper and the practice of epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1986; 124 (5): 711–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114446.Susser M. The logic of Sir Karl Popper and the practice of epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1986; 124 (5): 711–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114446.Hume D. Essays: in 2 vol. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Moscow: Mysl’; 1996: 733 p. (in Russ.)Юм Д. Сочинения: в 2 т. Т. 1. 2-е изд. М.: Мысль; 1996: 733 с.Rothman K.J. Inferring causal connection – habit, faith or logic? In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Mass., USA: Epidemiology Resources Inc.; 1988: 3–12.Rothman K.J. Inferring causal connection – habit, faith or logic? In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Mass., USA: Epidemiology Resources Inc.; 1988: 3–12.Popper K.R. The logic of scientific discovery. London and New York: Routledge Classics; 2002: 513 p.Popper K.R. The logic of scientific discovery. London and New York: Routledge Classics; 2002: 513 p.Rothman K.J., Greenland S., Poole C., Lash T.L. Causation and causal inference. In: Rothman K.J., Greenland S., Lash T.L. (Eds.) Modern epidemiology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): Wolters Kluwer; 2008: 5–31.Rothman K.J., Greenland S., Poole C., Lash T.L. Causation and causal inference. In: Rothman K.J., Greenland S., Lash T.L. (Eds.) Modern epidemiology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): Wolters Kluwer; 2008: 5–31.Van den Broeck J., Brestoff J.R. (Eds.) Epidemiology: principles and practical guidelines. Dordrecht: Springer; 2013: 621 p.Van den Broeck J., Brestoff J.R. (Eds.) Epidemiology: principles and practical guidelines. Dordrecht: Springer; 2013: 621 p.Maldonado G., Greenland S. Estimating causal effects. Int J Epidemiol. 2002; 31 (2): 422–9. https://doi.org/10.1093/intjepid/31.2.422.Maldonado G., Greenland S. Estimating causal effects. Int J Epidemiol. 2002; 31 (2): 422–9. https://doi.org/10.1093/intjepid/31.2.422.Guyatt G.H., Keller J.L., Jaeschke R., et al. The N-of-1 randomized controlled trial: clinical usefulness. Our three-year experience. Ann Intern Med. 1990; 112: 293–9.Guyatt G.H., Keller J.L., Jaeschke R., et al. The N-of-1 randomized controlled trial: clinical usefulness. Our three-year experience. Ann Intern Med. 1990; 112: 293–9.Weed D.L. Epidemiologic evidence and causal inference. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2000; 14 (4): 797–807. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-8588(05)70312-9.Weed D.L. Epidemiologic evidence and causal inference. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2000; 14 (4): 797–807. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-8588(05)70312-9.Vandenbroucke J.P. What is the best evidence for determining harms of medical treatment? CMAJ. 2006; 174 (5): 645–6. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.051484.Vandenbroucke J.P. What is the best evidence for determining harms of medical treatment? CMAJ. 2006; 174 (5): 645–6. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.051484.Glasziou P., Chalmers I., Rawlins M., McCulloch P. When are randomised trials unnecessary? Picking signal from noise. Brit Med J. 2007; 334 (7589): 349–51. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39070.527986.68.Glasziou P., Chalmers I., Rawlins M., McCulloch P. When are randomised trials unnecessary? Picking signal from noise. Brit Med J. 2007; 334 (7589): 349–51. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39070.527986.68.Rimm A.A., Bortin M. Clinical trials as a religion. Biomedicine. 1978; 28 (Spec No): 60–3.Rimm A.A., Bortin M. Clinical trials as a religion. Biomedicine. 1978; 28 (Spec No): 60–3.Favaloro R.G. Critical analysis of coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a 30-year journey. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31 (4 Suppl B): 1B–63B. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0735-1097(97)00559-7.Favaloro R.G. Critical analysis of coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a 30-year journey. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31 (4 Suppl B): 1B–63B. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0735-1097(97)00559-7.Olsen J., Greene N., Saracci R., Trichopoulos D. (Eds.) Teaching epidemiology. A guide for teachers in epidemiology, public health, and clinical medicine. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2015: 555 p.Olsen J., Greene N., Saracci R., Trichopoulos D. (Eds.) Teaching epidemiology. A guide for teachers in epidemiology, public health, and clinical medicine. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2015: 555 p.Feinstein A.R. Clinical epidemiology. I. The populational experiments of nature and of man in human illness. Ann Intern Med. 1968; 69 (4): 807–20. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-69-4-807.Feinstein A.R. Clinical epidemiology. I. The populational experiments of nature and of man in human illness. Ann Intern Med. 1968; 69 (4): 807–20. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-69-4-807.Fletcher R.H., Fletcher S.W., Wagner E.H. Clinical epidemiology: the essentials. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1996: 276 p.Флетчер Р., Флетчер С., Вагнер Э. Клиническая эпидемиология. Основы доказательной медицины. М.: Медиа Сфера; 1998: 352 с.Sackett D.L. Clinical epidemiology. What, who, and whither. J Clin Epidemiol. 2002; 55 (12): 1161–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/s08954356(02)00521-8.Sackett D.L. Clinical epidemiology. What, who, and whither. J Clin Epidemiol. 2002; 55 (12): 1161–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/s08954356(02)00521-8.Bonita R., Beaglehole R., Kjellstrom T. Basic epidemiology. 2nd ed. World Health Organization; 2006: 212 p.Bonita R., Beaglehole R., Kjellstrom T. Basic epidemiology. 2nd ed. World Health Organization; 2006: 212 p.Saracci R. Epidemiology. A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.; 2010: 171 p.Saracci R. Epidemiology. A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.; 2010: 171 p.Holmes L.J. Applied epidemiologic principles and concepts. Clinicians’ guide to study design and conduct. New York: Taylor & Francis; 2018: 316 p.Holmes L.J. Applied epidemiologic principles and concepts. Clinicians’ guide to study design and conduct. New York: Taylor & Francis; 2018: 316 p.Kincaid H. Causal modelling, mechanism, and probability in epidemiology. In: Illari P.M., Russo F., Williamson J. (Eds.) Causality in the sciences. New York: Oxford University Press; 2011: 20 p. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199574131.003.0004.Kincaid H. Causal modelling, mechanism, and probability in epidemiology. In: Illari P.M., Russo F., Williamson J. (Eds.) Causality in the sciences. New York: Oxford University Press; 2011: 20 p. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199574131.003.0004.Bhopal R.S. Concepts of epidemiology: integrated the ideas, theories, principles and methods of epidemiology. 3rd ed. Oxford: University Press; 2016: 442 p.Bhopal R.S. Concepts of epidemiology: integrated the ideas, theories, principles and methods of epidemiology. 3rd ed. Oxford: University Press; 2016: 442 p.Coughlin S.S. Causal inference and scientific paradigms in epidemiology. Bentham E-book; 2010: 70 p. https://doi.org/10.2174/97816080518161100101.Coughlin S.S. Causal inference and scientific paradigms in epidemiology. Bentham E-book; 2010: 70 p. https://doi.org/10.2174/97816080518161100101.Lagiou P., Adami H.O., Trichopoulos D. Causality in cancer epidemiology. Eur J Epidemiol. 2005; 20 (7): 565–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-005-7968-y.Lagiou P., Adami H.O., Trichopoulos D. Causality in cancer epidemiology. Eur J Epidemiol. 2005; 20 (7): 565–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-005-7968-y.Karhausen L.R. The poverty of Popperian epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol. 1995; 24 (5): 869–74. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/24.5.869.Karhausen L.R. The poverty of Popperian epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol. 1995; 24 (5): 869–74. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/24.5.869.Susser M. Falsification, verification and causal inference in epidemiology: reconsiderations in the light of sir Karl Popper’s philosophy. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Chestnut Hill, MS: Epidemiologic Resources; 1988: 33–57.Susser M. Falsification, verification and causal inference in epidemiology: reconsiderations in the light of sir Karl Popper’s philosophy. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Chestnut Hill, MS: Epidemiologic Resources; 1988: 33–57.Jacobsen M. Inference in epidemiology. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Chestnut Hill, MS: Epidemiologic Resources; 1988: 105–17.Jacobsen M. Inference in epidemiology. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Chestnut Hill, MS: Epidemiologic Resources; 1988: 105–17.Buck C. Popper’s philosophy for epidemiologists. Int J Epidemiol. 1975; 4 (3): 159–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/4.3.159.Buck C. Popper’s philosophy for epidemiologists. Int J Epidemiol. 1975; 4 (3): 159–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/4.3.159.Frost W.H. Risk of persons in familial contact with pulmonary tuberculosis. Am J Public Health Nations Health. 1933; 23 (5): 426–32. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.23.5.426.Frost W.H. Risk of persons in familial contact with pulmonary tuberculosis. Am J Public Health Nations Health. 1933; 23 (5): 426–32. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.23.5.426.Doll R. Cohort studies: history of the method. I. Prospective cohort studies. Soz Praventivmed. 2001; 46 (2): 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01299724.Doll R. Cohort studies: history of the method. I. Prospective cohort studies. Soz Praventivmed. 2001; 46 (2): 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01299724.Frost W.H. Snow on cholera: being a reprint of two papers by John Snow, M.D. together with a biographical memoir by B.W. Richardson and an introduction by Wade Hampton Frost, M.D. The Commonwealth Fund. New York; 1936: 15.Frost W.H. Snow on cholera: being a reprint of two papers by John Snow, M.D. together with a biographical memoir by B.W. Richardson and an introduction by Wade Hampton Frost, M.D. The Commonwealth Fund. New York; 1936: 15.Labarthe D.M., Stallones R.A. Epidemiologic inference. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal Inference. Chestnut Hill, MS: Epidemiologic Resources; 1988: 119–29.Labarthe D.M., Stallones R.A. Epidemiologic inference. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal Inference. Chestnut Hill, MS: Epidemiologic Resources; 1988: 119–29.UNSCEAR 2006. Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes. Annex A. Epidemiological studies of radiation and cancer. United Nations. New York; 2008: 17–322. URL: https://www.unscear.org/unscear/publications.html (дата обращения 15.03.2021).UNSCEAR 2006. Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes. Annex A. Epidemiological studies of radiation and cancer. United Nations. New York; 2008: 17–322. URL: https://www.unscear.org/unscear/publications.html (дата обращения 15.03.2021).Webb P., Bain C. Essential epidemiology. An introduction for students and health professionals. 2nd ed. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press; 2011: 445 p.Webb P., Bain C. Essential epidemiology. An introduction for students and health professionals. 2nd ed. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press; 2011: 445 p.Merrill R.M. Introduction to epidemiology. 7th ed. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2017: 339 p.Merrill R.M. Introduction to epidemiology. 7th ed. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2017: 339 p.Koterov A.N., Biryukov A.P. Role of radiobiology for radiation epidemiology using for radiation protection. Int J Low Radiation (Paris). 2010; 7 (6); 473–99. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLR.2010.037670.Koterov A.N., Biryukov A.P. Role of radiobiology for radiation epidemiology using for radiation protection. Int J Low Radiation (Paris). 2010; 7 (6); 473–99. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLR.2010.037670.Maclure M. Popperian refutation in epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1985; 121 (3): 343–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114005.Maclure M. Popperian refutation in epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1985; 121 (3): 343–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114005.Parascandola M. Epidemiology: second-rate science? Public Health Rep. 1998; 113 (4): 312–20.Parascandola M. Epidemiology: second-rate science? Public Health Rep. 1998; 113 (4): 312–20.Rothman K.J. What is causation. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Epidemiology, an introduction. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002: 8–24.Rothman K.J. What is causation. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Epidemiology, an introduction. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002: 8–24.Venables K.M. (Ed.) Current topics in occupational epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press; 2013: 270 p.Venables K.M. (Ed.) Current topics in occupational epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press; 2013: 270 p.Susser M., Stein Z. Eras in epidemiology: the evolution of ideas. New York: Oxford University Press; 2009: 368 p.Susser M., Stein Z. Eras in epidemiology: the evolution of ideas. New York: Oxford University Press; 2009: 368 p.Pokrovskiy V.I., Briko N.I. (Ed.) General epidemiology with the basics of evidence-based medicine: a guide to practical exercises. 2nd ed. Мoscow: GEOTAR-Media; 2012: 496 с. (in Russ.)Покровский В.И., Брико Н.И. (ред.) Общая эпидемиология с основами доказательной медицины: руководство к практическим занятиям. 2-е изд. М.: ГЭОТАР-Медиа; 2012: 496 с.Gregg M.B. (Ed.) Field epidemiology. 3rd ed. Oxford University Press; 2008: 572 p.Gregg M.B. (Ed.) Field epidemiology. 3rd ed. Oxford University Press; 2008: 572 p.Paul J.R. President’s address clinical epidemiology. J Clin Invest. 1938 ; 17 (5): 539–41. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI100978.Paul J.R. President’s address clinical epidemiology. J Clin Invest. 1938 ; 17 (5): 539–41. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI100978.Louis P.C.A. Researches on the effects of bloodletting in some inflammatory diseases and on the influence of tartarked antimony and vesication in pneumonitis. Boston: Hilliard & Gray; 1836: 208 p.Louis P.C.A. Researches on the effects of bloodletting in some inflammatory diseases and on the influence of tartarked antimony and vesication in pneumonitis. Boston: Hilliard & Gray; 1836: 208 p.Sackett D.L., Winkelstein W. Jr. The relationship between cigarette usage and aortic atherosclerosis. Am J Epidemiol. 1967; 86 (1): 264–70. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120731.Sackett D.L., Winkelstein W. Jr. The relationship between cigarette usage and aortic atherosclerosis. Am J Epidemiol. 1967; 86 (1): 264–70. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120731.Sackett D.L. Clinical epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1969; 89 (2): 125–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120921.Sackett D.L. Clinical epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1969; 89 (2): 125–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120921.Feinstein A.R. Clinical judgement. Baltimore: Williams 8 Wilkins; 1967: 414 p.Feinstein A.R. Clinical judgement. Baltimore: Williams 8 Wilkins; 1967: 414 p.Briko N.I., Polibin R.V., Mindlina А.Ya. Clinical epidemiology: history of formation and prospects of development. Medical Almanac. 2012; (3): 28–31 (in Russ.).Брико Н.И., Полибин Р.В., Миндлина А.Я. Клиническая эпидемиология: история становления и перспективы развития. Медицинский альманах. 2012; (3): 28–31.Parfrey P.S., Barrett B.J. (Eds.) Clinical epidemiology. Practice and methods. 2nd ed. New York: Humana Press; 2015: 533 p.Parfrey P.S., Barrett B.J. (Eds.) Clinical epidemiology. Practice and methods. 2nd ed. New York: Humana Press; 2015: 533 p.Strom B.L. (Ed.) Pharmacoepidemiology. 3rd ed. Baffins Lane, Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.; 2000: 858 p.Strom B.L. (Ed.) Pharmacoepidemiology. 3rd ed. Baffins Lane, Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.; 2000: 858 p.Worrall J. Evidence in medicine. Compass. 2007; 2 (6): 981-1022. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-9991.2007.00106.x.Worrall J. Evidence in medicine. Compass. 2007; 2 (6): 981-1022. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-9991.2007.00106.x.Krauss A. Why all randomised controlled trials produce biased results. Ann Med. 2018; 50 (4): 312–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2018.1453233.Krauss A. Why all randomised controlled trials produce biased results. Ann Med. 2018; 50 (4): 312–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2018.1453233.Wartolowska K., Beard D.J., Carr A.J. The use of placebos in controlled trials of surgical interventions: a brief history. J R Soc Med. 2018; 111 (5): 177–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076818769833.Wartolowska K., Beard D.J., Carr A.J. The use of placebos in controlled trials of surgical interventions: a brief history. J R Soc Med. 2018; 111 (5): 177–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076818769833.Charlton B.G. The Zombie science of evidence-based medicine: a personal retrospective. A commentary on Djulbegovic, B., Guyatt, G.H. & Ashcroft, R.E. (2009). Cancer Control, 16, 158–168. J Eval Clin Pract. 2009; 15 (60); 930–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2009.01267.x.Charlton B.G. The Zombie science of evidence-based medicine: a personal retrospective. A commentary on Djulbegovic, B., Guyatt, G.H. & Ashcroft, R.E. (2009). Cancer Control, 16, 158–168. J Eval Clin Pract. 2009; 15 (60); 930–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2009.01267.x.Guyatt G., Cairns J., Churchill D., et al. Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. Evidence-based medicine. A new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. J Am Med Assoc. 1992; 268 (17): 2420–5. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1992.03490170092032.Guyatt G., Cairns J., Churchill D., et al. Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. Evidence-based medicine. A new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. J Am Med Assoc. 1992; 268 (17): 2420–5. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1992.03490170092032.Guyatt G.H. Evidence-based medicine. ACP J Club. 1991; 114 (2): A16.Guyatt G.H. Evidence-based medicine. ACP J Club. 1991; 114 (2): A16.Oxman A.D., Sackett D.L., Guyatt G.H. Users’ guides to the medical literature. I. How to get started. The evidence-based medicine working group. J Am Med Assoc. 1993; 270 (17): 2093–5. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.281.21.2029.Oxman A.D., Sackett D.L., Guyatt G.H. Users’ guides to the medical literature. I. How to get started. The evidence-based medicine working group. J Am Med Assoc. 1993; 270 (17): 2093–5. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.281.21.2029.Greenhalgh T. How to read a paper: the basics of evidence based medicine. 1st ed. BMJ Books; 1997:196 p.Гринхальх Т. Основы доказательной медицины. М.: ГЭОТАР-Медиа; 2006: 240 с.Sackett D.L., Rosenberg W.M., Gray J.A., et al. Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn’t. Brit Med J. 1996; 312 (7023): 71–2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71.Sackett D.L., Rosenberg W.M., Gray J.A., et al. Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn’t. Brit Med J. 1996; 312 (7023): 71–2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71.Straus S.E., Glasziou P., Richardson W.S., et al. Evidence-based medicine: how to practice and teach EBM. 5th ed. Edinburgh, etc.: Elsevier; 2019: 406 p.Straus S.E., Glasziou P., Richardson W.S., et al. Evidence-based medicine: how to practice and teach EBM. 5th ed. Edinburgh, etc.: Elsevier; 2019: 406 p.Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination. The periodic health examination. Can Med Assoc J. 1979; 121 (9): 1193–254.Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination. The periodic health examination. Can Med Assoc J. 1979; 121 (9): 1193–254.Andreeva N.S., Rebrova O.Y., Zorin N.A. et al. Systems for assessing the reliability of scientific evidence and the soundness of guidelines: comparison and prospects for unification. Medical Technologies. Assessment and Choice. 2012; 4: 10–24 (in Russ.).Андреева Н.С., Реброва О.Ю., Зорин Н.А. и др. Системы оценки достоверности научных доказательств и убедительности рекомендаций: сравнительная характеристика и перспективы унификации. Медицинские технологии. Оценка и выбор. 2012; 4: 10–24.Vandenbroucke J.P. Observational research, randomised trials, and two views of medical science. PLoS Med. 2008; 5 (3): e67. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050067.Vandenbroucke J.P. Observational research, randomised trials, and two views of medical science. PLoS Med. 2008; 5 (3): e67. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050067.Sturmberg J.P. Evidence-based medicine – not a panacea for the problems of a complex adaptive world. J Eval Clin Pract. 2019; 25 (5): 706–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/jep.13122.Sturmberg J.P. Evidence-based medicine – not a panacea for the problems of a complex adaptive world. J Eval Clin Pract. 2019; 25 (5): 706–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/jep.13122.Kuhn T.S. Objectivity, value judgment, and theory choice. In: Kuhn T.S. (Ed.) The Essential tension. Chicago: University Chicago Press; 1977: 320–43 (in Russ.).Кун Т.С. Объективность, ценностные суждения и выбор теории. В кн.: Печенкин А.А. (сост.) Современная философия науки. Хрестоматия. М.; 1994: 37–51.Scheutz F., Poulsen S. Determining causation in epidemiology. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1999; 27 (3): 161–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0528.1999.tb02006.x.Scheutz F., Poulsen S. Determining causation in epidemiology. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1999; 27 (3): 161–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0528.1999.tb02006.x.Baker G. An essay concerning the cause of the endemial colic of Devonshire. London: Printed by J. Hughs; 1767 (reprint: New York: Delta Omega Society; 1958).Baker G. An essay concerning the cause of the endemial colic of Devonshire. London: Printed by J. Hughs; 1767 (reprint: New York: Delta Omega Society; 1958).Guy W.A. Contributions to the knowledge of the influence of employments upon health. J Roy Stat Soc. 1843; 6: 197–211.Guy W.A. Contributions to the knowledge of the influence of employments upon health. J Roy Stat Soc. 1843; 6: 197–211.Vineis P. History of bias. Soz Praventivmed. 2002; 47 (3): 156–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01591887.Vineis P. History of bias. Soz Praventivmed. 2002; 47 (3): 156–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01591887.Lane-Claypon J.E. A further report on cancer of the breast, with special reference to its associated antecedent conditions. Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects No. 32. Ministry of Health. London: Published by His Majesty´s Stationary Office; 1926.Lane-Claypon J.E. A further report on cancer of the breast, with special reference to its associated antecedent conditions. Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects No. 32. Ministry of Health. London: Published by His Majesty´s Stationary Office; 1926.Paneth N., Susser E., Susser M. Origins and early development of the case-control study: part 2. The case-control study from Lane-Claypon to 1950. Soz Praventivmed. 2002; 47 (6): 359–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s000380200003.Paneth N., Susser E., Susser M. Origins and early development of the case-control study: part 2. The case-control study from Lane-Claypon to 1950. Soz Praventivmed. 2002; 47 (6): 359–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s000380200003.Doll R., Hill A.B. The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits; a preliminary report. Br Med J. 1954; 1 (4877): 1451–5. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4877.1451.Doll R., Hill A.B. The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits; a preliminary report. Br Med J. 1954; 1 (4877): 1451–5. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4877.1451.Doll R., Hill A.B. Mortality in relation to smoking: ten years’ observations of British doctors. Br Med J. 1964; 1 (5395): 1399–410. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.5396.1460.Doll R., Hill A.B. Mortality in relation to smoking: ten years’ observations of British doctors. Br Med J. 1964; 1 (5395): 1399–410. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.5396.1460.Senn S.J. Falsificationism and the clinical trials. Stat Med. 1991; 10 (11): 1679–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.4780101106.Senn S.J. Falsificationism and the clinical trials. Stat Med. 1991; 10 (11): 1679–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.4780101106.Bonell C., Moore G., Warren E., Moore L. Are randomised controlled trials positivist? Reviewing the social science and philosophy literature to assess positivist tendencies of trials of social interventions in public health and health services. Trials. 2018; 19 (1): 238. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-018-2589-4.Bonell C., Moore G., Warren E., Moore L. Are randomised controlled trials positivist? Reviewing the social science and philosophy literature to assess positivist tendencies of trials of social interventions in public health and health services. Trials. 2018; 19 (1): 238. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-018-2589-4.Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Mass., USA: Epidemiology Resources Inc.; 1988: 207 p.Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Mass., USA: Epidemiology Resources Inc.; 1988: 207 p.Boice J.D. Jr. Ionizing radiation. In: Schottenfeld D., Fraumeni J.F. (Eds.) Schottenfeld and Fraumeni cancer epidemiology and prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press: 2006: 259–93.Boice J.D. Jr. Ionizing radiation. In: Schottenfeld D., Fraumeni J.F. (Eds.) Schottenfeld and Fraumeni cancer epidemiology and prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press: 2006: 259–93.Susser M. Rational science versus a system of logic. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Chestnut Hill, MS: Epidemiologic Resources; 1988: 189–99.Susser M. Rational science versus a system of logic. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Chestnut Hill, MS: Epidemiologic Resources; 1988: 189–99.Susser M. Rational science versus a system of logic. In: Rothman K.J. (Ed.) Causal inference. Chestnut Hill, MS: Epidemiologic Resources; 1988: 189–99.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.